Archaeology of Olive Domestication

Archaeology of Olive Domestication Olives are the fruit of a tree that today can be found as nearly 2,000 separate cultivars within the Mediterranean basin alone. Today olives come in a huge variety of fruit sizes, shape, and color, and they are grown on every continent except Antarctica. And that may in part be why the history and domestication story of olives is a complicated one. Olives in their native state are virtually inedible by humans, although domestic animals like cattle and goats dont seem to mind the bitter flavor. Once cured in brine, of course, olives are very tasty. Olive wood burns even when wet; which makes it very useful and that may be one attractive characteristic that drew people towards the management of olive trees. One later use was for olive oil, which is virtually smoke-free and can be used in cooking and lamps, and in many other ways. Olive History The olive tree (Olea europaea var. europaea) is thought to have been domesticated from the wild oleaster (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), at a minimum of nine different times. The earliest probably dates to the Neolithic migration into the Mediterranean basin, ~6000 years ago. Propagating olive trees is a vegetative process; that is to say, successful trees are not grown from seeds, but rather from cut roots or branches buried in the soil and allowed to root, or grafted onto other trees. Regular pruning helps the grower keep access to the olives in the lower branches, and olive trees are known to survive for centuries, some reportedly for as much as 2,000 years or more. Mediterranean Olives The first domesticated olives are likely from the Near East (Israel, Palestine, Jordan), or at least the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, although some debate persists about its origins and spread. Archaeological evidence suggests that the domestication of olive trees spread into the western Mediterranean and North Africa by the Early Bronze Age, ~4500 years ago. Olives, or more specifically olive oil, has a significant meaning to several Mediterranean religions: see the History of Olive Oil for a discussion of that. Archaeological Evidence Olive wood samples have been recovered from the Upper Paleolithic site of Boker in Israel. The earliest evidence of olive use discovered to date is at Ohalo II, where ca 19,000 years ago, olive pits and wood fragments were found. Wild olives (oleasters) were used for oils throughout the Mediterranean basin during the Neolithic period (ca 10,000-7,000 years ago). Olive pits have been recovered from the Natufian period (ca 9000 BC) occupations in Mount Carmel in Israel. Palynological (pollen) studies on the contents of jars have identified the use of  olive oil presses by the early Bronze Age (ca 4500 years ago) in Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean. Scholars using molecular and archaeological evidence (presence of pits, pressing equipment, oil lamps, pottery containers for oil, olive timber, and pollen, etc.) have identified separate domestication centers in Turkey, Palestine, Greece, Cyprus, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Corsica, Spain, and France. DNA analysis reported in Diez et al. (2015) suggests that the history is complicated by admixture, connecting domesticated versions with wild versions throughout the region. Important Archaeological Sites Sites Archaeological sites important to understanding the domestication history of the olive include Ohalo II, Kfar Samir, (pits dated to 5530-4750 BC); Nahal Megadim (pits 5230-4850 cal BC) and Qumran (pits 540-670 cal AD), all in Israel; Chalcolithic Teleilat Ghassul (4000-3300 BC), Jordan; Cueva del Toro (Spain). Sources and Further Information Plant Domestication and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Breton C, Pinatel C, Mà ©dail F, Bonhomme F, and Bervillà © A. 2008. Comparison between classical and Bayesian methods to investigate the history of olive cultivars using SSR-polymorphisms. Plant Science 175(4):524-532. Breton C, Terral J-F, Pinatel C, Mà ©dail F, Bonhomme F, and Bervillà © A. 2009. The origins of the domestication of the olive tree. Comptes Rendus Biologies 332(12):1059-1064. Diez CM, Trujillo I, Martinez-Urdiroz N, Barranco D, Rallo L, Marfil P, and Gaut BS. 2015. Olive domestication and diversification in the Mediterranean Basin. New Phytologist 206(1):436-447. Elbaum R, Melamed-Bessudo C, Boaretto E, Galili E, Lev-Yadun S, Levy AA, and Weiner S. 2006. Ancient olive DNA in pits: preservation, amplification and sequence analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 33(1):77-88. Margaritis E. 2013. Distinguishing exploitation, domestication, cultivation, and production: the olive in the third millennium Aegean. Antiquity 87(337):746-757. Marinova, Elena. An experimental approach for tracing olive processing residues in the archaeobotanical record, with preliminary examples from Tell Tweini, Syria. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, Jan M. A. van der Valk, Soultana Maria Valamoti, et al., 20(5), ResearchGate, September 2011. Terral JF, Alonso N, Capdevila RBi, Chatti N, Fabre L, Fiorentino G, Marinval P, Jord GP, Pradat B, Rovira N, et al. 2004. Historical biogeography of olive domestication ( Journal of Biogeography 31(1):63-77.Olea europaea L.) as revealed by geometrical morphometry applied to biological and archaeological material.

Gorgo - Queen of Sparta

Gorgo - Queen of Sparta Gorgo was the only daughter of King Cleomenes I of Sparta (520-490). She was also his heir. Sparta had a pair of hereditary kings. One of the two ruling families was the Agiad. This was the family to which Gorgo belonged. Cleomenes may have committed suicide and is considered unstable, but he helped Sparta achieve prominence beyond the Peloponnese. Sparta may have given rights to women that were rare among the Hellenes, but being heir didnt mean Gorgo could be Cleomenes successor. Herodotus, in 5.48, names Gorgo as Cleomenes heir: In this manner Dorieos ended his life: but if he had endured to be a subject of Cleomenes and had remained in Sparta, he would have been king of Lacedemon; for Cleomenes reigned no very long time, and died leaving no son to succeed him but a daughter only, whose name was Gorgo. When King Cleomenes, his successor was his half-brother Leonidas. Gorgo had married him in the late 490s when she was in her late teens.Gorgo was the mother of another Agiad king, Pleistarchus.Importance of Gorgo Being an heir or patrouchas would have made Gorgo noteworthy, but Herodotus shows that she was also a wise young woman. Wisdom of Gorgo Gorgo warned her father against a foreign diplomat, Aristagoras of Miletus, who was trying to persuade Cleomenes to support an Ionian revolt against the Persians. When words failed, he offered a large bribe. Gorgo warned her father to send Aristagoras away lest he corrupts him. Cleomenes accordingly having so said went away to his house: but Aristagoras took the suppliants branch and went to the house of Cleomenes; and having entered in as a suppliant, he bade Cleomenes send away the child and listen to him; for the daughter of Cleomenes was standing by him, whose name was Gorgo, and this as it chanced was his only child, being of the age now of eight or nine years. Cleomenes however bade him say that which he desired to say, and not to stop on account of the child. Then Aristagoras proceeded to promise him money, beginning with ten talents, if he would accomplish for him that for which he was asking; and when Cleomenes refused, Aristagoras went on increasing the sums of money offered, until at last he had promised fifty talents, and at that moment the child cried out: Father, the stranger will do thee hurt,[38] if thou do not leave him and go. Cleomenes, then, pleased by the counsel of the child, departed into another room, and Aristagoras went away from S parta altogether, and had no opportunity of explaining any further about the way up from the sea to the residence of the king.Herodotus 5.51 The most impressive feat ascribed to Gorgo was understanding that there was a secret message and locating it beneath a blank wax tablet. The message warned the Spartans of an imminent threat posed by the Persians. I will return now to that point of my narrative where it remained unfinished. The Lacedemonians had been informed before all others that the king was preparing an expedition against Hellas; and thus it happened that they sent to the Oracle at Delphi, where that reply was given them which I reported shortly before this. And they got this information in a strange manner; for Demaratos the son of Ariston after he had fled for refuge to the Medes was not friendly to the Lacedemonians, as I am of opinion and as likelihood suggests supporting my opinion; but it is open to any man to make conjecture whether he did this thing which follows in a friendly spirit or in malicious triumph over them. When Xerxes had resolved to make a campaign against Hellas, Demaratos, being in Susa and having been informed of this, had a desire to report it to the Lacedemonians. Now in no other way was he able to signify it, for there was danger that he should be discovered, but he contrived thus, that is to say , he took a folding tablet and scraped off the wax which was upon it, and then he wrote the design of the king upon the wood of the tablet, and having done so he melted the wax and poured it over the writing, so that the tablet (being carried without writing upon it) might not cause any trouble to be given by the keepers of the road. Then when it had arrived at Lacedemon, the Lacedemonians were not able to make conjecture of the matter; until at last, as I am informed, Gorgo, the daughter of Cleomenes and wife of Leonidas, suggested a plan of which she had herself thought, bidding them scrape the wax and they would find writing upon the wood; and doing as she said they found the writing and read it, and after that they sent notice to the other Hellenes. These things are said to have come to pass in this manner.Herodotus 7.239ff Source: Carledge, Paul, The Spartans. New York: 2003. Vintage Books. More on Sparta Greek Hoplite SoldierSpartiateCynisca of SpartaLeonidas King of SpartaCleomenes I King of SpartaSparta and SamosSpartas Rise to PowerLycurgus of SpartaKrypteia The Mythological Gorgo There is an earlier Gorgo, one in Greek mythology, mentioned in both the Iliad and Odyssey, Hesiod, Pindar, Euripides, Vergil, and Ovid, and other ancient sources. This Gorgo, alone or with her siblings, in the Underworld or Libya, or elsewhere, is associated with the snake-tressed, powerful, frightening Medusa, who is the only mortal among the Gorgones.

To what extent do trade unions and trade union organisations in Europe Essay

To what extent do trade unions and trade union organisations in Europe constitute a European labour movement - Essay Example In this regard a psychological contract is also formed which states that the employees will give their service and attention to the organization and in return they also expect fair remuneration, proper work environment and sufficient privileges. The objectives and goals of the trade unions are centred on the interest of the employees and the proper enforcement of the labour rights. The trade union helps the employees to negotiate with the employer on the grounds of pay scale and working conditions, to address the need for major changes in the workplace along with major redundancies, to communicate the concerns of the employees to the employer, etc. The trade union also facilitate the addressing of employee grievances and ensures that they are properly mitigated without any internal disputes. It also provides all the necessary legal and financial advices to the employees to help them with their personal interests (People Power, 2014). It also provides the employees with certain facilities on the ground of educational facilities, discounted products and services including insurances. The objectives of the trade union clearly states that it takes care of the upliftment of the workers and prevents any unethical practices on the m. The trade union allows the workers to come under one roof and create a unity that creates a bigger momentum which helps them to take care of their concerns. The trade union was initiated with the advent of the labour movements during the pre-industrial era. The dominant professions in the Britain and Europe were only limited to agriculture, metal works, etc. The workers worked for the land owner or any business man, and they had very little control over their working condition. The highly autocratic behaviour of the employers exerted severe pressure over the employees and their working condition were quite poor along with their pay scale. This as a result pushed the

Van den Bosch Sends an E-Mail Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Van den Bosch Sends an E-Mail - Case Study Example From the research it can be comprehended that Johannes Van den Bosch had become impatient with Pablo Menendez’s lack of response to his inquiries; following the abusive confrontation by the firm’s British client, Smythe-Jones, Van den Bosch needed a response. He sent the email because he hoped that it would provoke some response from Menendez, who had not responded to his earlier emails regarding the IAS financial statements of the Mexican subsidiary. Johannes wanted Menendez to know the urgency of this financial statements. The email was also written in such a way that would show Menendez the level of frustration that the delay caused the client, and how this trickled down to Johannes and his office. The email would therefore ensure that: Johannes got a reply from Menendez regarding the steps that had to be taken in order to finalize the Mexican subsidiary’s IAS financials; he got the name(s) of the person that would do the financials, either the local managemen t, B&FF Mexico, client headquarters, or B&FF Rotterdam; he got a time table that outlined the timeframe within which these financials would be done, a brief overview why the preparation of IAS financial statements are delayed, and also any other reports for 2007 that were pending. In addition to the financials, Johannes also wanted Menendez to be updating him on the status every week, and a timely report of any major problems that arose.

Planetary Defense For Cosmic Collisions Research Paper

Planetary Defense For Cosmic Collisions - Research Paper Example A science fiction plot? Not according to many authors who have presented a similar scenario as historical fact over the years.† In addition, Ellen Tan (1996) proposed a collision or near-collision between the Earth and an asteroid, comet, or planet during the prehistoric time period is one of the reasons given for the untimely disappearance of the fabled Atlantis. The story stating that the collision from an asteroid, comet, or heavenly body is one of the reasons given for the deluge story, in the Genesis section of the Holy Bible. The same collision theory is also given for the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Further, David Levy (1994;181) proposes â€Å"Imagine a peaceful, steamy night with mighty Triceratops drinking water from a pond, watching for their enemy Tyrannosaurus Rex. Brighter than the brightest stars, a comet dominates the night. For several weeks now, the comet has brightened as it approached the sun, its long tail making it look like a sword in the sky. By the next afternoon, it is all over. With large thunderclaps and a huge crash, the comet slams into the Earth in what is now the Caribbean basin, just off the coast of the present-day Yucatà ¡n.† The meteorite glowed brightly as it invades the Earth’s delicate atmosphere and evaporated. The comet is very huge that it literally plows through bringing the impression that the air is absent to slow down the incoming heavenly objects. As the heavenly object touches the water surface, high walls of water skyrocket from the point of falling object’s zooming impact into the air. Consequently, millions of tons of dust blast skyward in a gigantic cloud. Furthermore, the same author states that materials excavated from the collision site bounce back into the atmosphere in smaller splintered pieces. The smaller pieces are distributed over the entire Earth’s surface. Around the world, the splintered pieces dot the

Communication Barriers Between Singapore And Italy Cultural Studies Essay

Communication Barriers Between Singapore And Italy Cultural Studies Essay Singapore is an amalgamation of 63 islands, and is the smallest country in Southeast Asia. The approximate distance between Singapore and Italy is about 9365.5km apart (Distance from Singapore to Italy), yet a lot of firms set up their flagships and also other  business functions locally. Published on Straits Times-22 April 2009 titled: Spore, Italian region ink deal, Both countries are looking at RD to boost their economic prosperity. We are trying to work together so hopefully we can find new patents, products that can be commercialized. Thats the value for Singapore, he added. Lombardys President Roberto Formigoni said Singapore is strategic for Italy, especially in leveraging on Singapores knowledge of, and relations with, China and Vietnam. This shows the strong bilateral relationship between both countries. (Spore, Italian region ink deal) However, being said that, there are still problems occurring during day-to-day operations in terms of communication between Singaporean and Italians. This paper will focus on the inter-relationship communication barriers faced by both Singaporeans and Italians in a particular organization.   Overview of Singapore Singapore and Europe had great history links since 1869 when Singapore was a major trading and shipping port. (Who We Are).   After nearly 150 years under the British Colony, Singapore emerged as a Nation in 1965. (Rogger, Year not stated) Thus, this may portray a deceptive imagine of Singaporeans as appearing more westernized. However, on the other hand, younger generations of business people in Singapore are usually more experience in interacting with people and are more flexible and open-minded to perform business with foreigners. (Katz, 2007) Singapore is a cosmopolitan society where people live harmoniously and interactions among different races are commonly seen. Singapore holds a diverse population due to immigrants of the past has given the place a mixture of 3 major racial groups consisting of Chinese, Malay and Indians who does not process a single dominant national identity (Warnstam, 2007). In order to do business successfully in a multicultural country like Singapore, it is important for all to understand the different cultural traditions, customs, as well as background of each race groups. This will prevent unnecessary conflicts. Languages Used in Singapore English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil are the four official languages that are commonly used in Singapore. Singapore also has its own brand of spoken English, which is known as Singlish. It is quite different from English in its speaking accents and grammar.   Religion in Singapore Singapore generally allows religious freedom, although religious groups are subject to government scrutiny, and some religious sects are restricted or banned. (http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2798.htm). The religion diversity in Singapore consists of Chinese temples (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and ancestor worship), Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and others which comprises of Jews and Sikhs, etc (Lepoer, 1989). Culture and Society of Singapore The Family The common traits of Singaporeans are that the concepts of harmony, mutual security and working in groups are more important than that of acting as an individual. The family represents the center of the social structures which strongly emphasizes in unity, loyalty and respect for the elderly (Kwintessential, Year not stated). Kiasu Kiasu is a term often used by Singaporean to describe the social attitude of Singaporeans who are often afraid of losing in anything or in any situation (Warnstam, 2007). According to Warnstam (2007), the term Kaisu refers to both positive and negative connotation; some suggest the attitude of being Kiasu reflects the strong work ethics and competitiveness within each Singaporean. Whereas, others might feel that being Kiasu leads to a graceless society.   Concept of Face Maintaining face plays an important part of the Singapore culture. As per Craig (2004), the concept of face is being measured as of ones internal quality, status, good name, and good character. To prevent from losing face, Singaporeans tends to control their temper and behavior in public and will not criticize people directly on the face (Warnstam, 2009). Thus, communication is conducted indirectly. In Singapore, face does not involve purely on personal pride but involves the country and its whole population as it promotes group harmony and solidarity.   Diversity Singapore values the diversity of its people and often stresses the importance of accepting difference amongst its diverse population of people from different races such as Chinese, Malay and Indians. Despite the evitable separation of some groups, Singapore serves as an umbrella culture creates a sense of belonging among all Singaporeans (Warnstam, 2007). Singapore Education System Singapore used to implement traditional British based education system. Presently, the system has evolved to a broad based education with more flexibility and diversity. The distinct feature of the Singapore education system is the bilingual policy. It was implemented in 1966. It was compulsory for students to take up the main median language-English to be able to communicate with other races and also with foreigners. This will help Singaporeans to communicate effectively with fellow Singaporeans that will prevent any unnecessary conflicts due to miscommunication. It also helps Singaporeans to be able to communicate efficiently wherever they are in the world as English is a widely used language internationally. Another language is the students traditional language, be it Chinese, Malay, Tamil, this is to maintain the values of the respective racial groups locally. Students will attend basic education for 6 years after pre-school. And follow on into secondary school and so on. However, education does not just end after graduating. Singaporeans have many opportunities for further trainings as the Singapore government is focusing to develop its workforce so as to increase productivity. The government is also targeting in creating a skilled workforce to increase global competitiveness. Singapore Politics Singapore had her first elections in 1959 after being granted full internal self-governance. The dominating party in the country is the Peoples Actions Party (PAP) that is lead by Mr. Lee Kuan Yew. He is also the present minister mentor, a position created when his son, Lee Hsien Long became Singapores third prime minister. Opposition parties are namely the workers party (WP), Singapore Democratic Alliance Party (SDA), Singapore Democratic Party (SDA), Democratic Party (SDP) and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). Singapore was recognized internationally through joining the United Nations, followed by the Commonwealth in 1965. (Singapore, Overview: Politics of Singapore) The unicameral Parliament currently consists of 84 members elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and up to nine nominated members of Parliament. A constitutional provision assures at least three opposition members, even if fewer than three actually are elected. A non-constituency seat held by the opposition under this provision since 1997 was again filled after the last election held on May 6, 2006. In May 2006, general election, the governing Peoples Action Party (PAP) won 82 of the 84 seats. The president appoints nominated members of Parliament from among nominations by a special select committee. Nominated members of Parliament (NMPs) enjoy the same privileges as members of Parliament but cannot vote on constitutional matters or expenditures of funds. The maximum term of Parliament is 5 years. NMPs serve for two-and-a-half-year terms. Voting has been compulsory since 1959. (Background note: Singapore) Singapore is a democratic society. However, Economist Intelligent Unit has classified Singapore as a hybrid country that comprises of both authoritarianism and democracy. The present Singapore enjoys political stability that attracts investors and foreign talents. Overview of Singapore Economy   Despite the small geographic size of the nation and small domestic market, Singapore not only has strong international trade links with many countries. Singapore Economy is also one of the most prosperous globally. Singapore was ranked third in 2009 as being the most competitive economy in the world by the world economic forum. (Singapore keeps 3rd spot in competitiveness ranking). According to the World Bank Doing Business 2010 Report, Singapore economy is considered to be the easiest to do business in. Some favorable findings about Singapore stated in the report: Ranked No.1 for having the most open and liberal economy for international trade Ranked No.2 as the economy with the best  investment  potential Ranked #1 in Asia and #4 in the world for having low levels of corruption in the economy (Economy Rankings; Singapore Economy) Singapore does not have natural resources. However, due to its strategic location and government policies, it became a hub of foreign investment. The local government practices a pro-foreign investment and export-orientated economic policy. This helps to attract large scale of foreign investment despite its high operating cost. For example: United States have invested about $106.5billion worth assets in the service and manufacturing sectors. Other factor that attracts the foreign investors is skilled workers, advanced infrastructure, political stability and corruption free government. (Background Note: Singapore) Hierarchy and Structure of Singapore Companies In Singapore, companies operate in a top-down structure whereby the senior management in the company does all major decision-makings. Respect is given prior to the senior members of the group and is always being introduced first. It is always polite to stand when a higher-ranking official arrives at a venue, and to be seated after the important personnel is seated.   Unlike other countries, women also play an important role in the work field and are given chances to hold managerial positions in the organizations. There is no prejudice against gender, age and race due to the fair employment law.   Singapore Business Practices In Singapore business culture, building of personal relationships is considered more important that the company that you represents (ASAG-biotech network, Year unknown). During business situations, a light handshake is used (Warnstam, 2007). Singaporeans love to bargain and haggle during negotiations. (Katz, 2007) Whilst in business discussion, Singaporeans appears to be calm and hardly reveals their emotions. It is also considered very rude to speak loudly or interrupt during a conversation.   It is important that business cards are being inspected carefully before putting them away as it represents a form of respect and recognition of the person. Name cards should be held with both hands and present to the recipient with the correct print facing to him / her. Name cards should be placed on the table instead of shoving into pockets or bags as a form of respect. It is also important to wait and be introduced by the host. Intensive eye contact with a senior management or an elderly is considered a sign of disrespect. In order to show a form of respect, it is important to know how to greet a person name based on his / her race. For example, greeting via surnames is necessary during the first meeting with Singaporean Chinese. Gifts are acceptable in most organizations. However, gifts to government employees may be considered as bribery and is prohibited in Singapore (Warnstam, 2007). Singapore Working Practices In Singapore Business society, punctuality is extremely important and efforts should be made to arrive early or on time. Appointments should be made in advance. Should there be any late arrivals, it is of basic courtesy to inform the other party and also to advise the latest arrival time. The typical office hours are normally between 9:00a.m. to 5:00 pm from Mondays to Fridays that consists of an hour lunch break in between. Some offices will also operate on Saturdays especially in the morning.   Overview of Italy Italy used to be diverse culturally, economically and politically. However, today the Italians are largely homogeneous linguistically and religiously. Italy has the fifth-highest population density in Europe, with a approximate population of 60 million people (Italy Travel Guide). Minority groups are small, the largest being the German-speaking people of Bolzano Province and the Slovenes around Trieste. There are also small communities of Albanian, Greek, Ladino, and French origin. Although immigration has been increasing in recent years, the Italian population is still declining due to low birth rates. (Affairs, 2010) Brief history of Italy Through the ensuing years, numerous rulers from beyond the Alps, with or without the consent of the papacy, failed to impose their authority. Throughout the fourteen and fifteenth centuries of campanilismo (local patriotism), only a minority of people would have heard the word Italia. Loyalties were predominantly provincial. However, there were elements that made a strong contrast to the world beyond the Alps that is a common legal culture, high levels of lay education and urban literacy, a close relationship between town and country, and nobility who frequently engaged in trade. There are three features, in particular, from this period that solidified the notion of a unified culture. First, it was the maturing of the economic development that was originated in the early centuries. With increasing urbanization, the northern and central Italian trade, manufacture, and financial capitalism continued with extraordinary vigor and have remarkable influence throughout majority of the Mediterranean areas and Europe as a whole. It was a development that served as the necessary preliminary for the expansion of Europe beyond its ancient bounds at the end of the fifteenth century. Second, the extension of de facto independent city-states, which, whether as republics or as powers ruled by one person or family, created a powerful impression upon contemporaries and posterity. Finally, allied to the movements stated above, it was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that civilization of the Italian Renaissance was born from this society, which was to be exported to the rest of Europe. Ethnic Relations Many countries and peoples have conquered and occupied Italy over the centuries, and thus, causing the Italians to resent each of these conquerors. Even so, they intermarried with them and accepted a number of their customs. (Salamone) Culture of Italians Ethnic Italians make up about 95% of the population, and the largest ethnics minority of the Romanians (officially 1%, however maybe double that). There is an increaseing wave of immigration from the EU countries of Eastern Europe and illegal immigration from the south-eastern Europe and northern Africa are increasing. Appearances matters in Italy and having a good image bella figure is very important. And you will likely be judged not only by the smartness of your clothes and accessories, but also by the general style and demeanour. Social etiquette is generally energetic but also somewhat formal. (Italy) Economy of Italy Italy started to industrialize rapidly after 1945, moving away from the traditional agriculture, until a point where less than 5% of the population is engaged in agriculture. The majority of these populations live in the south of Italy, which is substantially poorer than the rest of the country. Their main crops are sugar beet, wheat, tomatoes and fruit (especially grapes. Majority of the grapes are used for wine, which Italy is a leading producer). Italy continues to rely heavily on the export of manufactured goods, although the tourism industry is enjoying a major position alongside other service industries such as financial services, along with most western European economies. Their strengths are particularly in advanced manufacturing techniques and systems, high-quality design and precision engineering. Most of the industrial raw materials and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. The Italians economy has been sluggish since 2000 with growth in 2009 of 5% and is expected to drop further. The inflation in 2009 was just under 1% and the unemployment rate is 7.5%. Despite doubts about the size of its growing budget deficit (public debt is 105% of GDP) in Europe, Italy was among the founding members of the Euro-zone in 1999. The current government has enacted some reforms to improve competitiveness and growth. (Italy Travel Guide) Language The official language in Italy is Italian, and majority of the population (about 93%) are native Italian speakers and about 50% of population speaks a regional dialect as mother tongue. As many of the dialects are mutually unintelligible and are considered by linguists as a separate language, thus it is not officially recognised. Religion 90% of the populations are Roman Catholic, and the remaining of the populations comprises mainly of Jews, the growing population of Muslims, Orthodox and Eastern Rite Catholics. Politics The type of government in Italy is parliamentary democratic republic. The major political parties: People of Freedom (Popolo della Libertà  ), Democratic Party (Partito Democratico), Northern League (Lega Nord), Italy of Values (Italia dei Valori), Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (Unione dei Democratici Cristiani e di Centro), Communist Refoundation Party (Partito della Rifondazione Comunista). (_) Political Philosophy There is different types of political philosophy that existed in Italy are mainly egalitarian socialism / communism and nationalistic fascism. One of the examples is Benito Mussolini. He ruled as a dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943 and his political philosophy, which he called fascism, was based on the total domination of the government in all spheres of political, social, economic, and cultural life. The Italians regards him as a hero in the initial stage until he was driven by the government before the end of World War II. (Benito Mussolini) Education At present the Italian school system is divided into four levels:   Kindergarten / Preschool (Scuola Materna) For children aged three to five, the scuola materna provides optional education for children and every child is entitled to a place. It is not compulsory for a child to attend preschool but most parents enrol their children in a scuola materna. Preschool in Italy is free except in private schools. Primary school (scuole elementare) School in Italy is compulsory from the age of six onwards. Recent legislation changes means that children may start scuola primaria from the age of five and a half onwards (this is to bring Italian schools in line with European schools regarding school leaving ages). Primary school lasts for five years. Student had to pass an exam at the end of fifth year before they could progress to secondary school. Lower secondary (scuola media) Attendance at lower secondary school (scuola media) is compulosry for all children between the ages of 11 to 14. Students are required to attend 30 hours of classes per week, though some schools may offer additional classes if there is demand (up to 40 hours). Every term, each student receives a teachers report outlining their aptitude, behavior and achievement. At the end of the third year, pupils sit a standard examination consisting of written papers in Italian, as well as exams in mathematics, science and a foreign language. An oral exam is also administered in all subjects except religion. Successful students are awarded their lower secondary school diploma (diploma di licenza media) and move on to upper secondary school. Upper secondary school (scuola superiore) Upper Secondary School (scuola superiore) involves between three and five years of attendance. Students do an obligatory two years (biennio) of general studies follow by an optional three years (triennio) of specialised education. Students have to choose at this time which type of course they want to study, depending on whether they are thinking of going on to university afterwards, or if they are looking at obtaining a vocational qualification. State school in Italy is free until the end of primary education. School in Italy is compulsory until the age of 16.   (Italian Education Schooling in Italy) Next, we will be making cultural differences comparison on Italy and Singapore using Geert Hofstede model. Geert Hofsted Cultural Dimensions Power Distance Index (PDI) that is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. It suggests that a societys level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality are fundamental facts of any society and anyone with certain working experience or interaction will be aware that all societies are unequal.   Individualism (IDV) is the opposite of collectivism. Ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him or herself and his or her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are usually cohesive in groups and often extended families members continue in protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word collectivism may has no political meaning but it is referring to the group, but not the state. Again, the issue addressed is fundamental, regarding all societies in the world. Masculinity (MAS) is the opposite of femininity and it refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is also a fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. Studies revealed that womens values differ from mens values which mens values from one country to another contain assertiveness, competitiveness whereas womens values on the one other side tend to be modest and caring. The assertiveness and competitiveness pole has commonly been referred as masculine while modest and caring is commonly referred as feminine.   Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) deals with a societys tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to mans search for Truth. Uncertain situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures. People in countries which face uncertainty are also more emotional while people whom are receptive of uncertainty are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to. There are few rules to adhere to and people within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation: this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars it can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values usually associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance while values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and saving one from embarrassment. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. [http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_italy.shtml] Geert Hofstedeà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Cultural Dimensions The World Factbook 2002    The Buddhist-Shinto societies also have an additional Dimension, that of Long Term Orientation (LTO). Geert Hofstede added this Dimension after the original study, and it was applied to twenty-three of the fifty original countries in his study. The Buddhist/Shinto Countries of Taiwan and Japan have LTO as the most closely correlating Dimension. Comparisons between Singapore and Italy: Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions: Country: PDI IDV MAS UAI LTO Singapore 74 20 48 8 48 Italy 50 76 70 75 N.A Based on the statistics above, there are several differences between Singapore and Italy which will be discussed in as of the following. Power Distance Index (PDI) Power Distance (PD) refers to the degree of inequality that exists, which is being accepted, among the people with and without power. A high PD score indicates that the society accepts an unequal distribution of power and people would not go beyond their place in the system. A low PD means that power is shared and equally dispersed. This means that society members view everyone as equals. Application: According to the Hofstedes model, in a high PD such as Malaysia (PD of 104), employees from the lower management position would probably send reports to top management, who will have a closed door meeting where only a few leaders attends. In a low PD country such as Austria (PD of 11), the power are equally distributed among the lower and top management. Characteristics Tips High PD Centralized companies. Strong hierarchies. Large gaps in compensation, authority, and respect. Acknowledge a leaders power. Be aware that you may need to go to the top for answers Low PD Flatter organizations. Supervisors and employees are considered almost as equals. Use teamwork Involve as many people as possible in decision making. [http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm] Based on the PDI, Singapore has a higher PDI than that of Italy. Even though, Singapore and Italy shares the same aspects of hierarchy and a common trait of downward communication, Singaporeans tends to be more respectful to the senior management and elders. On the other hand, Italians are more outspoken in their speech and they love to ridicule authority and with people who are in positions of power (http://students.depaul.edu/~jborger/#Individualism). To Italians, breaking petty rules are a form of entertainment. However, breakings of rules are uncommon in Singapore. Individualism (IDV) Individualism (IDV) refers to the strength of ties people have to others within the community. A high IDV score indicates a loose connection in the society. Countries with a high IDV score there is a lack of interpersonal connection and little sharing of responsibility, beyond family and perhaps a few close friends. A low IDV scores means the society have strong group cohesion, and there will be a large amount of loyalty and respect for members of the group. The group itself is also larger and people take more responsibility for each others well being. Accordingly to the Hofstedes model, countries such as America have high individualism/collectivism dimensions and they are more individualistic. (http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2005/905/essentials/p62.htm) There are collectivistic dimensions countries in Central America such as Panama and Guatemala where the IDV scores are very low. Marketing campaign that emphasized benefits to the community would most likely be understood and well-received. Characteristics Tips High IDV High valuation on peoples time and their need for freedom. An enjoyment of challenges, and an expectation of rewards for hard work. Respect for privacy. Acknowledge accomplishments. Dont ask for too much personal information. Encourage debate and expression of own ideas. Low IDV Emphasis on building skills and becoming masters of something. Work for intrinsic rewards. Harmony more important than honesty. Show respect for age and wisdom. Suppress feelings and emotions to work in harmony. Respect traditions and introduce change slowly. [http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm] As individualism is being defined as societies connecting people are considered loose, individuals in Italy are only responsible for themselves and their immediate family members (http://students.depaul.edu/~jborger/#Individualism). However, Italians have also minimum views on collectivism in such whereby under people collective cultures are born into a group and they will remain the same members of that cohesive group for their entire lives. (http://students.depaul.edu/~jborger/#Individualism). On the other hand, despite the similarities of Singaporeans on their views on individualism, being a multi-racial society, Singaporeans are more on the side of being collective; in such whereby man is to be judged not by his own character, actions or race. (http://freedomkeys.com/collectivism.htm)   Masculinity (MAS) Masculinity (MAS) This refers to how much a society sticks with, and values, traditional male and female roles. High MAS scores are found in countries where men are expected to be tough, to be the provider, to be assertive and to be strong. If women work outside the home, they have separate professions from men. Low MAS scores do not reverse the gender roles. In a low MAS society, the roles are simply blurred. You see women and men working together equally across many professions. Men are allowed to be sensitive and women can work hard for professional success. Application: Japan is highly masculine with a score of 95 whereas Sweden has the lowest measured value. According to Hofstedes analysis, if you were to open an office in Japan, you might have greater success if you appointed a male employee to lead the team and had a strong male contingent on the team. In Sweden, on the other hand, you would aim for a team that was balanced in terms of skill rather than gender. Characteristics Tips High MAS Men are masculine and women are feminine. There is a well defined distinction between mens work and womens work. Be aware that people may expect male and female roles to be distinct. Advise men to avoid discussing emotions or making emotionally-based decisions or arguments. Low MAS A woman can do anything a man can do. Powerful and successful women are admired and respected. Avoid an old boys club mentality. Ensure job design and practices are not discriminatory to either gender. Treat men and women equally. [http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm] Based on the model of Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions, Italy has a higher level of Masculinity than Singapore. Many Italian men are still treating women with gallantry and value machismo. (http://students.depaul.edu/~jborger/#Individualism). Despite women entering the workforce, the numbers are kept minimal and only a few are in a higher management. Responsibilities of Italian women are mainly to cook, clean and care for the children

The Fourth Crusade Essay -- History, The Crusades

The Fourth Crusade Is karma the reason for the slow but evident sinking of Venice into the Mediterranean? Maybe it is indemnity for the cruel selfish acts of Venice during the Fourth Crusade. The Venetians along with crusaders robbed Constantinople for personal gains. The Fourth Crusade should be an example that it is crude and unjust to attack fellow men for no reason. The Crusades were a series of battles and short wars against the Muslims. In the eleventh century Jerusalem had been taken over by the Turks. This sparked the Crusades the Crusades ended up lasting 200 years. The third crusade was deemed unsuccessful because Jerusalem was still in Muslim hands. In 1198, Pope Innocent issued the need for a Fourth Crusade. Excitement was stirred up by Priest Faulk of Neuilly after he preached at a knight tournament (Williams 103). In other areas the recruitment work "was done on tours by major prelates, preaching sermons designed to move their listeners to take the cross" (103). At the time Egypt was the center of Muslim power so Egypt was the intended target. Unknown to crusaders, ambassadors of the Doge of Venice Enrico Dandolo were in Egypt negotiating with the sultan and assuring the sultan that Egypt would not be attacked (Williams 104). Dandolo wanted to attack Constantinople. The leader of the crusaders Count Boniface agreed with Dandolo. In Venice, Dandolo agreed to supply enough ships for 33,500 men and 4,500 horses as well as an extra 50 armed galleys (Williams 104). By the intended departure date their were only 10,000 men ready to leave (Robinson). Later, 30,000 men arrived but a new problem arose. The men only had 51,000 marks when the price was set at 85,000 for the ships. Dandolo agreed to suspend the debt if... ...new throne and Catholicism was the new state religion (Cooke). Although, "the advantages that had been gained by the Fourth Crusade vanished, as water vanishes on a hot stone" (Williams 116). What looked like a simple attack on Egypt changed into a destruction of the greatest city on earth. It was done out of greed and done by selfish people. Everyone in the hierarchy was involved up to the pope who saw his treasury rise from the gold of Constantinople. Dandolo was a good strategist but a crude man. Today many people still resent him and one scholar was asked if he knew the location of Dandolo's grave and he replied "Yes, I go there and spit on it" (Cooke). Venice gained new heights in wealth but did it come at a price. Venice is sinking into the Mediterranean. Maybe it is karma and hopefully this was a lesson that it is unjust to attack fellow men for greed.